SECTION I. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS

2. International cooperation to accelerate sustainable development in developing countries and related

SECTION II. CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF RESOURCES FOR DEVELOPMENT

17. Protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal

18. Protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources: application of integrated approaches to

19. Environmentally sound management of toxic chemicals, including prevention of illegal international

SECTION III. STRENGTHENING THE ROLE OF MAJOR GROUPS

SECTION IV. MEANS OF IMPLEMENTATION

* * * * *

* Copyright © United Nations Division for Sustainable Development

* For section I (Social and economic dimensions), see A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. I)

* For section II (Conservation and management of resources for development), see A/CONF.151/26 (Vol. II);

for section III (Strengthening the role of major groups) and section IV (Means of implementation), see

1.1. Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We are confronted with a perpetuation of disparities

between and within nations, a worsening of poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the

continuing deterioration of the ecosystems on which we depend for our well-being. However,

integration of environment and development concerns and greater attention to them will lead to the

fulfilment of basic needs, improved living standards for all, better protected and managed ecosystems

and a safer, more prosperous future. No nation can achieve this on its own; but together we can - in a

global partnership for sustainable development.

1.2. This global partnership must build on the premises of General Assembly resolution 44/228 of 22

December 1989, which was adopted when the nations of the world called for the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development, and on the acceptance of the need to take a balanced

and integrated approach to environment and development questions.

1.3. Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at preparing the world for the

challenges of the next century. It reflects a global consensus and political commitment at the highest

level on development and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and foremost

the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans, policies and processes are crucial in

achieving this. International cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this

context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other international, regional and subregional

organizations are also called upon to contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the

active involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups should also be

encouraged.

1.4. The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will require a substantial flow of new

and additional financial resources to developing countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for

the actions they have to undertake to deal with global environmental problems and to accelerate

sustainable development. Financial resources are also required for strengthening the capacity of

international institutions for the implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order-of-magnitude

assessment of costs is included in each of the programme areas. This assessment will need to be

examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and organizations.

1.5. In the implementation of the relevant programme areas identified in Agenda 21, special attention

should be given to the particular circumstances facing the economies in transition. It must also be

recognized that these countries are facing unprecedented challenges in transforming their economies,

in some cases in the midst of considerable social and political tension.

1.6. The programme areas that constitute Agenda 21 are described in terms of the basis for action,

objectives, activities and means of implementation. Agenda 21 is a dynamic programme. It will be

carried out by the various actors according to the different situations, capacities and priorities of

countries and regions in full respect of all the principles contained in the Rio Declaration on

Environment and Development. It could evolve over time in the light of changing needs and

circumstances. This process marks the beginning of a new global partnership for sustainable

development.

* When the term "Governments" is used, it will be deemed to include the European Economic Community within its

areas of competence. Throughout Agenda 21 the term "environmentally sound" means "environmentally safe and

sound", in particular when applied to the terms "energy sources", "energy supplies", "energy systems" and "technology"

2.1. In order to meet the challenges of environment and development, States have decided to establish a

new global partnership. This partnership commits all States to engage in a continuous and constructive

dialogue, inspired by the need to achieve a more efficient and equitable world economy, keeping in

view the increasing interdependence of the community of nations and that sustainable development

should become a priority item on the agenda of the international community. It is recognized that, for

the success of this new partnership, it is important to overcome confrontation and to foster a climate of

genuine cooperation and solidarity. It is equally important to strengthen national and international

policies and multinational cooperation to adapt to the new realities.

2.2. Economic policies of individual countries and international economic relations both have great

relevance to sustainable development. The reactivation and acceleration of development requires both

a dynamic and a supportive international economic environment and determined policies at the

national level. It will be frustrated in the absence of either of these requirements. A supportive external

economic environment is crucial. The development process will not gather momentum if the global

economy lacks dynamism and stability and is beset with uncertainties. Neither will it gather

momentum if the developing countries are weighted down by external indebtedness, if development

finance is inadequate, if barriers restrict access to markets and if commodity prices and the terms of

trade of developing countries remain depressed. The record of the 1980s was essentially negative on

each of these counts and needs to be reversed. The policies and measures needed to create an

international environment that is strongly supportive of national development efforts are thus vital.

International cooperation in this area should be designed to complement and support - not to diminish

or subsume - sound domestic economic policies, in both developed and developing countries, if global

progress towards sustainable development is to be achieved.

2.3. The international economy should provide a supportive international climate for achieving

environment and development goals by:

A. Promoting sustainable development through trade Basis for action

2.5. An open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and predictable multilateral trading system that is

consistent with the goals of sustainable development and leads to the optimal distribution of global

production in accordance with comparative advantage is of benefit to all trading partners. Moreover,

improved market access for developing countries' exports in conjunction with sound macroeconomic

and environmental policies would have a positive environmental impact and therefore make an

important contribution towards sustainable development.

2.6. Experience has shown that sustainable development requires a commitment to sound economic

policies and management, an effective and predictable public administration, the integration of

environmental concerns into decision-making and progress towards democratic government, in the

light of country-specific conditions, which allows for full participation of all parties concerned. These

attributes are essential for the fulfilment of the policy directions and objectives listed below.

2.7. The commodity sector dominates the economies of many developing countries in terms of production,

employment and export earnings. An important feature of the world commodity economy in the 1980s

was the prevalence of very low and declining real prices for most commodities in international markets

and a resulting substantial contraction in commodity export earnings for many producing countries.

The ability of those countries to mobilize, through international trade, the resources needed to finance

investments required for sustainable development may be impaired by this development and by tariff

and non-tariff impediments, including tariff escalation, limiting their access to export markets. The

removal of existing distortions in international trade is essential. In particular, the achievement of this

objective requires that there be substantial and progressive reduction in the support and protection of

agriculture - covering internal regimes, market access and export subsidies - as well as of industry and

other sectors, in order to avoid inflicting large losses on the more efficient producers, especially in

developing countries. Thus, in agriculture, industry and other sectors, there is scope for initiatives

aimed at trade liberalization and at policies to make production more responsive to environment and

development needs. Trade liberalization should therefore be pursued on a global basis across economic

sectors so as to contribute to sustainable develop ment.

2.8. The international trading environment has been affected by a number of developments that have

created new challenges and opportunities and have made multilateral economic cooperation of even

greater importance. World trade has continued to grow faster than world output in recent years.

However, the expansion of world trade has been unevenly spread, and only a limited number of

developing countries have been capable of achieving appreciable growth in their exports. Protectionist

pressures and unilateral policy actions continue to endanger the functioning of an open multilateral

trading system, affecting particularly the export interests of developing countries. Economic

integration processes have intensified in recent years and should impart dynamism to global trade and

enhance the trade and development possibilities for developing countries. In recent years, a growing

number of these countries have adopted courageous policy reforms involving ambitious autonomous

trade liberalization, while far-reaching reforms and profound restructuring processes are taking place

in Central and Eastern European countries, paving the way for their integration into the world economy

and the international trading system. Increased attention is being devoted to enhancing the role of

enterprises and promoting competitive markets through adoption of competitive policies. The GSP has

proved to be a useful trade policy instrument, although its objectives will have to be fulfilled, and trade

facilitation strategies relating to electronic data interchange (EDI) have been effective in improving the

trading efficiency of the public and private sectors. The interactions between environment policies and

trade issues are manifold and have not yet been fully assessed. An early, balanced, comprehensive and

successful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations would bring about further

liberalization and expansion of world trade, enhance the trade and development possibilities of

developing countries and provide greater security and predictability to the international trading system.

Objectives

2.9. In the years ahead, and taking into account the results of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade

negotiations, Governments should continue to strive to meet the following objectives:

a. To promote an open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral trading system that

will enable all countries - in particular, the developing countries - to improve their

economic structures and improve the standard of living of their populations through

sustained economic development;

b. To improve access to markets for exports of developing countries;

c. To improve the functioning of commodity markets and achieve sound, compatible and

consistent commodity policies at national and international levels with a view to

optimizing the contribution of the commodity sector to sustainable development, taking

into account environmental considerations;

d. To promote and support policies, domestic and international, that make economic growth

and environmental protection mutually supportive.

Activities

(a) International and regional cooperation and coordination Promoting an international trading

system that takes account of the needs of developing countries

2.10. Accordingly, the international community should:

a. Halt and reverse protectionism in order to bring about further liberalization and

expansion of world trade, to the benefit of all countries, in particular the developing

countries;

b. Provide for an equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and predictable international

trading system;

c. Facilitate, in a timely way, the integration of all countries into the world economy

and the international trading system;

d. Ensure that environment and trade policies are mutually supportive, with a view to

achieving sustainable development;

e. Strengthen the international trade policies system through an early, balanced,

comprehensive and successful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateral trade

negotiations.

2.11. The international community should aim at finding ways and means of achieving a better

functioning and enhanced transparency of commodity markets, greater diversification of the

commodity sector in developing economies within a macroeconomic framework that takes into

consideration a country's economic structure, resource endowments and market opportunities, and

better management of natural resources that takes into account the necessities of sustainable

development.

2.12. Therefore, all countries should implement previous commitments to halt and reverse protectionism

and further expand market access, particularly in areas of interest to developing countries. This

improvement of market access will be facilitated by appropriate structural adjustment in developed

countries. Developing countries should continue the trade-policy reforms and structural adjustment

they have undertaken. It is thus urgent to achieve an improvement in market access conditions for

commodities, notably through the progressive removal of barriers that restrict imports, particularly

from developing countries, of commodity products in primary and processed forms, as well as the

substantial and progressive reduction of types of support that induce uncompetitive production, such as

production and export subsidies. (b) Management related activities Developing domestic policies that

maximize the benefits of trade liberalization for sustainable development

2.13. For developing countries to benefit from the liberalization of trading systems, they should

implement the following policies, as appropriate:

a. Create a domestic environment supportive of an optimal balance between

production for the domestic and export markets and remove biases against

exports and discourage inefficient import-substitution;

b. Promote the policy framework and the infrastructure required to improve

the efficiency of export and import trade as well as the functioning of

domestic markets.

2.14. The following policies should be adopted by developing countries with respect to commodities

consistent with market efficiency:

a. Expand processing, distribution and imp rove marketing practices and the

competitiveness of the commodity sector;

b. Diversify in order to reduce dependence on commodity exports;

c. Reflect efficient and sustainable use of factors of production in the

formation of commodity prices, including the reflection of environmental,

social and resources costs.

(c) Data and information

Encouraging data collection and research

2.15. GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant institutions should continue to collect appropriate trade data

and information. The Secretary-General of the United Nations is requested to strengthen the Trade

Control Measures Information System managed by UNCTAD.

Improving international cooperation in commodity trade and the diversification of the sector

2.16. With regard to commodity trade, Governments should, directly or through appropriate

international organizations, where appropriate:

a. Seek optimal functioning of commodity markets, inter alia,

through improved market transparency involving exchanges of

views and information on investment plans, prospects and markets

for individual commodities. Substantive negotiations between

producers and consumers should be pursued with a view to

achieving viable and more efficient international agreements that

take into account market trends, or arrangements, as well as study

groups. In this regard, particular attention should be paid to the

agreements on cocoa, coffee, sugar and tropical timber. The

importance of international commodity agreements and

arrangements is underlined. Occupational health and safety

matters, technology transfer and services associated with the

production, marketing and promotion of commodities, as well as

environmental considerations, should be taken into account;

b. Continue to apply compensation mechanisms for shortfalls in

commodity export earnings of developing countries in order to

encourage diversification efforts;

c. Provide assistance to developing countries upon request in the

design and implementation of commodity policies and the

gathering and utilization of information on commodity markets;

d. Support the efforts of developing countries to promote the policy

framework and infrastructure required to improve the efficiency of

export and import trade;

e. Support the diversification initiatives of the developing countries at

the national, regional and international levels.

Means of implementation

a. Financing and cost evaluation

2.17. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of

implementing the activities in this programme area to be about $8.8 billion from the international

community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only

and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are

non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments

decide upon for implementation.

b. Capacity-building 2.18. The above-mentioned technical cooperation activities aim at strengthening

national capabilities for design and implementation of commodity policy, use and management of

national resources and the gathering and utilization of information on commodity markets.

B. Making trade and environment mutually supportive Basis for action

2.19. Environment and trade policies should be mutually supportive. An open, multilateral trading

system makes possible a more efficient allocation and use of resources and thereby contributes to an

increase in production and incomes and to lessening demands on the environment. It thus provides

additional resources needed for economic growth and development and improved environmental

protection. A sound environment, on the other hand, provides the ecological and other resources

needed to sustain growth and underpin a continuing expansion of trade. An open, multilateral trading

system, supported by the adoption of sound environmental policies, would have a positive impact on

the environment and contribute to sustainable development.

2.20. International cooperation in the environmental field is growing, and in a number of cases trade

provisions in multilateral environment agreements have played a role in tackling global environmental

challenges. Trade measures have thus been used in certain specific instances, where considered

necessary, to enhance the effectiveness of environmental regulations for the protection of the

environment. Such regulations should address the root causes of environmental degradation so as not

to result in unjustified restrictions on trade. The challenge is to ensure that trade and environment

policies are consistent and reinforce the process of sustainable development. However, account should

be taken of the fact that environmental standards valid for developed countries may have unwarranted

social and economic costs in developing countries.

Objectives

2.21. Governments should strive to meet the following objectives, through relevant multilateral forums,

including GATT, UNCTAD and other international organizations:

a. To make international trade and environment policies mutually supportive in favour of

sustainable development;

b. To clarify the role of GATT, UNCTAD and other international organizations in dealing

with trade and environment -related issues, including, where relevant, conciliation

procedure and dispute settlement;

c. To encourage international productivity and competitiveness and encourage a

constructive role on the part of industry in dealing with environment and development

issues.

Activities

Developing an environment/trade and development agenda

2.22. Governments should encourage GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant international and regional

economic institutions to examine, in accordance with their respective mandates and competences, the

following propositions and principles:

a. Elaborate adequate studies for the better understanding of the relationship between trade

and environment for the promotion of sustainable development;

b. Promote a dialogue between trade, development and environment communities;

c. In those cases when trade measures related to environment are used, ensure transparency

and compatibility with international obligations;

d. Deal with the root causes of environment and development problems in a manner that

avoids the adoption of environmental measures resulting in unjustified restrictions on

trade;

e. Seek to avoid the use of trade restrictions or distortions as a means to offset differences in

cost arising from differences in environmental standards and regulations, since their

application could lead to trade distortions and increase protectionist tendencies;

f. Ensure that environment -related regulations or standards, including those related to

health and safety standards, do not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable

discrimination or a disguised restriction on trade;

g. Ensure that special factors affecting environment and trade policies in t he developing

countries are borne in mind in the application of environmental standards, as well as in

the use of any trade measures. It is worth noting that standards that are valid in the most

advanced countries may be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the

developing countries;

h. Encourage participation of developing countries in multilateral agreements through such

mechanisms as special transitional rules;

i. Avoid unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of

the importing country. Environmental measures addressing transborder or global

environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international

consensus. Domestic measures targeted to achieve certain environmental objectives may

need trade measures to render them effective. Should trade policy measures be found

necessary for the enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles and rules

should apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination; the

principle that the trade measure chosen should be the least trade-restrictive necessary to

achieve the objectives; an obligation to ensure transparency in the use of trade measures

related to the environment and to provide adequate notification of national regulations;

and the need to give consideration to the special conditions and developmental

requirements of developing countries as they move towards internationally agreed

environmental objectives;

j. Develop more precision, where necessary, and clarify the relationship between GATT

provisions and some of the multilateral measures adopted in the environment area;

k. Ensure public input in the formation, negotiation and implementation of trade policies as

a means of fostering increased transparency in the light of country-specific conditions;

Objectives

2.25. The specific requirements for the implementation of the sectoral and cross-sectoral programmes

included in Agenda 21 are dealt with in the relevant programme areas and in chapter 33 (Financial

resources and mechanisms).

Activities

(a) Meeting international targets of official development assistance funding

2.26. As discussed in chapter 33, new and additional resources should be provided to support Agenda

21 programmes.

(b) Addressing the debt issue

2.27. In regard to the external debt incurred with commercial banks, the progress being made under the

strengthened debt strategy is recognized and a more rapid implementation of this strategy is

encouraged. Some countries have already benefited from the combination of sound adjustment policies

and commercial bank debt reduction or equivalent measures. The international community

encourages:

a. Other countries with heavy debts to banks to negotiate similar commercial bank debt

reduction with their creditors;

b. The parties to such a negotiation to take due account of both the medium-term debt

reduction and new money requirements of the debtor country;

c. Multilateral institutions actively engaged in the strengthened international debt strategy to

continue to support debt-reduction packages related to commercial bank debt with a view

to ensuring that the magnitude of such financing is consonant with the evolving debt

strategy;

d. Creditor banks to participate in debt and debt -service reduction;

e. Strengthened policies to attract direct investment, avoid unsustainable levels of debt and

foster the return of flight capital.

2.28. With regard to debt owed to official bilateral creditors, the recent measures taken by the Paris

Club with regard to more generous terms of relief to the poorest most indebted countries are

welcomed. Ongoing efforts to implement these "Trinidad terms" measures in a manner commensurate

with the payments capacity of those countries and in a way that gives additional support to their

economic reform efforts are welcomed. The substantial bilateral debt reduction undertaken by some

creditor countries is also welcomed, and others which are in a position to do so are encouraged to take

similar action.

2.29. The actions of low-income countries with substantial debt burdens which continue, at great cost,

to service their debt and safeguard their creditworthiness are commended. Particular attention should

be paid to their resource needs. Other debt-distressed developing countries which are making great

efforts to continue to service their debt and meet their external financial obligations also deserve due

attention.

2.30. In connection with multilateral debt, it is urged that serious attention be given to continuing to

work towards growth-oriented solutions to the problem of developing countries with serious debtservicing

problems, including those whose debt is mainly to official creditors or to multilateral

financial institutions. Particularly in the case of low-income countries in the process of economic

reform, the support of the multilateral financial institutions in the form of new disbursements and the

use of their concessional funds is welcomed. The use of support groups should be continued in

providing resources to clear arrears of countries embarking upon vigorous economic reform

programmes supported by IMF and t he World Bank. Measures by the multilateral financial institutions

such as the refinancing of interest on non-concessional loans with IDA reflows - "fifth dimension" -

are noted with appreciation.

Means of implementation

Financing and cost evaluation*

Basis for action

2.31. The unfavourable external environment facing developing countries makes domestic resource

mobilization and efficient allocation and utilization of domestically mobilized resources all the more

important for the promotion of sustainable development. In a number of countries, policies are

necessary to correct misdirected public spending, large budget deficits and other macroeconomic

imbalances, restrictive policies and distortions in the areas of exchange rates, investment and finance,

and obstacles to entrepreneurship. In developed countries, continuing policy reform and adjustment,

including appropriate savings rates, would help generate resources to support the transition to

sustainable development both domestically and in developing countries.

* * * * *

* See chap. 33 (Financial resources and mechanisms).

* * * * *

2.32. Good management that fosters the association of effective, efficient, honest, equitable and

accountable public administration with individual rights and opportunities is an essential element for

sustainable, broadly based development and sound economic performance at all development levels.

All countries should increase their efforts to eradicate mismanagement of public and private affairs,

including corruption, taking into account the factors responsible for, and agents involved in, this

phenomenon.

2.33. Many indebted developing countries are undergoing structural adjustment programmes relating to

debt rescheduling or new loans. While such programmes are necessary for improving the balance in

fiscal budgets and balance-of-payments accounts, in some cases they have resulted in adverse social

and environmental effects, such as cuts in allocations for health care, education and environmental

protection. It is important to ensure that structural adjustment programmes do not have negative

impacts on the environment and social development so that such programmes can be more in line with

the objectives of sustainable development.

Objectives

2.34. It is necessary to establish, in the light of the country-specific conditions, economic policy reforms

that promote the efficient planning and utilization of resources for sustainable development through

sound economic and social policies, foster entrepreneurship and the incorporation of social and

environmental costs in resource pricing, and remove sources of distortion in the area of trade and

investment.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Promoting sound economic policies

2.35. The industrialized countries and other countries in a position to do so should strengthen their efforts:

a. To encourage a stable and predictable international economic environment, particularly with

regard to monetary stability, real rates of interest and fluctuations in key exchange rates;

b. To stimulate savings and reduce fiscal deficits;

c. To ensure that the processes of policy coordination take into account the interests and concerns of

the developing countries, including the need to promote positive action to support the efforts of

the least developed countries to halt their marginalization in the world economy;

d. To undertake appropriate national macroeconomic and structural policies aimed at promoting noninflationary

growth, narrowing their major external imbalances and increasing the adjustment

capacity of their economies.

b. Design and operation of efficient tax systems, accounting systems and financial sectors;

(c) Promotion of entrepreneurship.

2.39. International financial and development institutions should further review their policies and

programmes in the light of the objective of sustainable development.

2.40. Stronger economic cooperation among developing countries has long been accepted as an

important component of efforts to promote economic growth and technological capabilities and to

accelerate development in the developing world. Therefore, the efforts of the developing countries to

promote economic cooperation among themselves should be enhanced and continue to be supported

by the international community.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

2.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of

implementing the activities in this programme area to be about $50 million from the international

community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates

only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that

are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes

Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Capacity-building

2.42. The above-mentioned policy changes in developing countries involve substantial national efforts

for capacity-building in the areas of public administration, central banking, tax administration, savings

institutions and financial markets.

2.43. Particular efforts in the implementation of the four programme areas identified in this chapter are

warranted in view of the especially acute environmental and developmental problems of the least

PROGRAMME AREA

Enabling the poor to achieve sustainable livelihoods

Basis for action

3.1. Poverty is a complex multidimensional problem with origins in both the national and international

domains. No uniform solution can be found for global application. Rather, country-specific

programmes to tackle poverty and international efforts supporting national efforts, as well as the

parallel process of creating a supportive international environment, are crucial for a solution to this

problem. The eradication of poverty and hunger, greater equity in income distribution and human

resource development remain major challenges everywhere. The struggle against poverty is the shared

responsibility of all countries.

3.2. While managing resources sustainably, an environmental policy that focuses mainly on the

conservation and protection of resources must take due account of those who depend on the resources

for their livelihoods. Otherwise it could have an adverse impact both on poverty and on chances for

long-term success in resource and environmental conservation. Equally, a development policy that

focuses mainly on increasing the production of goods without addressing the sustainability of the

resources on which production is based will sooner or later run into declining productivity, which

could also have an adverse impact on poverty. A specific anti-poverty strategy is therefore one of the

basic conditions for ensuring sustainable development. An effective strategy for tackling the problems

of poverty, development and environment simultaneously should begin by focusing on resources,

production and people and should cover demographic issues, enhanced health care and education, the

rights of women, the role of youth and of indigenous people and local communities and a democratic

participation process in association with improved governance.

3.3. Integral to such action is, together with international support, the promotion of economic growth in

developing countries that is both sustained and sustainable and direct action in eradicating poverty by

strengthening employment and income-generating programmes.

Objectives

3.4. The long-term objective of enabling all people to achieve sustainable livelihoods should provide an

integrating factor that allows policies to address issues of development, sustainable resource

management and poverty eradication simultaneously. The objectives of this programme area are:

a. To provide all persons urgently with the opportunity to earn a sustainable livelihood;

b. To implement policies and strategies that promote adequate levels of funding and focus on

integrated human development policies, including income generation, increased local control

of resources, local institution-strengthening and capacity-building and greater involvement of

non-governmental organizations and local levels of government as delivery mechanisms;

c. To develop for all poverty-stricken areas integrated strategies and programmes of sound and

sustainable management of the environment, resource mobilization, poverty eradication and

alleviation, employment and income generation;

d. To create a focus in national development plans and budgets on investment in human capital,

with special policies and programmes directed at rural areas, the urban poor, women and

children. Activities

3.5. Activities that will contribute to the integrated promotion of sustainable livelihoods and environmental

protection cover a variety of sectoral interventions involving a range of actors, from local to global,

and are essential at every level, especially the community and local levels. Enabling actions will be

necessary at the national and international levels, taking full account of regional and subregional

conditions to support a locally driven and country-specific approach. In general design, the

programmes should:

a. Focus on the empowerment of local and community groups through the principle of

delegating authority, accountability and resources to the most appropriate level to ensure that

the programme will be geographically and ecologically specific;

b. Contain immediate measures to enable those groups to alleviate poverty and to develop

sustainability;

c. Contain a long-term strategy aimed at establishing the best possible conditions for sustainable

local, regional and national development that would eliminate poverty and reduce the

inequalities between various population groups. It should assist the most disadvantaged

groups - in particular, women, children and youth within those groups - and refugees. The

groups will include poor smallholders, pastoralists, artisans, fishing communities, landless

people, indigenous communities, migrants and the urban informal sector.

3.6. The focus here is on specific cross-cutting measures - in particular, in the areas of basic education,

primary/maternal health care, and the advancement of women.

(a) Empowering communities

3.7. Sustainable development must be achieved at every level of society. Peoples' organizations, women's

groups and non-governmental organizations are important sources of innovation and action at the local

level and have a strong interest and proven ability to promote sustainable livelihoods. Governments, in

cooperation with appropriate international and non-governmental organizations, should support a

community-driven approach to sustainability, which would include, inter alia:

a. Empowering women through full participation in decision-making;

b. Respecting the cultural integrity and the rights of indigenous people and their communities;

c. Promoting or establishing grass-roots mechanisms to allow for the sharing of experience and

knowledge between communities;

d. Giving communities a large measure of participation in the sustainable management and

protection of the local natural resources in order to enhance their productive capacity;

e. Establishing a network of community-based learning centres for capacity-building and

sustainable development.

(b) Management-related activities

3.8. Governments, with the assistance of and in cooperation with appropriate international, nongovernmental

and local community organizations, should establish measures that will directly or

indirectly:

a. Generate remunerative employment and productive occupational opportunities compatible

with country-specific factor endowments, on a scale sufficient to take care of prospective

increases in the labour force and to cover backlogs;

b. With international support, where necessary, develop adequate infrastructure, marketing

systems, technology systems, credit systems and the like and the human resources needed to

support the above actions and to achieve a widening of options for resource-poor people. High

priority should be given to basic education and professional training;

c. Provide substantial increases in economically efficient resource productivity and measures to

ensure that the local population benefits in adequate measure from resource use;

d. Empower community organizations and people to enable them to achieve sustainable

livelihoods;

e. Set up an effective primary health care and maternal health care system accessible to all;

f. Consider strengthening/developing legal frameworks for land management, access to land

resources and land ownership - in particular, for women - and for the protection of tenants;

g. Rehabilitate degraded resources, to the extent practicable, and introduce policy measures to

promote sustainable use of resources for basic human needs;

h. Establish new community-based mechanisms and strengthen existing mechanisms to enable

communities to gain sustained access to resources needed by the poor to overcome their

poverty;

i. Implement mechanisms for popular participation - particularly by poor people, especially

women - in local community groups, to promote sustainable development;

j. Implement, as a matter of urgency, in accordance with country-specific conditions and legal

systems, measures to ensure that women and men have the same right to decide freely and

responsibly on the number and spacing of their children and have access to the information,

education and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise this right in keep ing with

their freedom, dignity and personally held values, taking into account ethical and cultural

considerations. Governments should take active steps to implement programmes to establish

and strengthen preventive and curative health facilities, which include women-centred,

women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health care and affordable, accessible

services, as appropriate, for the responsible planning of family size, in keeping with freedom,

dignity and personally held values, taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.

Programmes should focus on providing comprehensive health care, including pre-natal care,

education and information on health and responsible parenthood and should provide the

opportunity for all women to breast-feed fully, at least during the first four months postpartum.

Programmes should fully support women's productive and reproductive roles and

well-being, with special attention to the need for providing equal and improved health care for

all children and the need to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortality and sickness;

k. Adopt integrated policies aiming at sustainability in the management of urban centres;

l. Undertake activities aimed at the promotion of food security and, where appropriate, food

self-sufficiency within the context of sustainable agriculture;

m. Support research on and integration of traditional methods of production that have been

shown to be environmentally sustainable;

n. Actively seek to recognize and integrate informal-sector activities into the economy by

removing regulations and hindrances that discriminate against activities in those sectors;

o. Consider making available lines of credit and other facilities for the informal sector and

improved access to land for the landless poor so that they can acquire the means of production

and reliable access to natural resources. In many instances special considerations for women

are required. Strict feasibility appraisals are needed for borrowers to avoid debt crises;

p. Provide the poor with access to fresh water and sanitation;

q. Provide the poor with access to primary education.

(c) Data, information and evaluation

3.9. Governments should improve the collection of information on target groups and target areas in order

to facilitate the design of focused programmes and activities, consistent with the target-group needs

and aspirations. Evaluation of such programmes should be gender-specific, since women are a

particularly disadvantaged group.

(d) International and regional cooperation and coordination

3.10. The United Nations system, through its relevant organs, organizations and bodies, in cooperation

with Member States and with appropriate international and non-governmental organizations, should

make poverty alleviation a major priority and should:

a. Assist Governments, when requested, in the formulation and implementation of national

action programmes on poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Action-oriented

activities of relevance to the above objectives, such as poverty eradication, projects and

programmes supplemented where relevant by food aid, and support and special emphasis on

employment and income generation, should be given particular attention in this regard;

b. Promote technical cooperation among developing countries for poverty eradication activities;

c. Strengthen existing structures in the United Nations system for coordination of action relating

to poverty eradication, including the establishment of a focal point for information exchange

and the formulation and implementation of replicable pilot projects to combat poverty;

d. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21, give high priority to the review of the

progress made in eradicating poverty;

e. Examine the international economic framework, including resource flows and structural

adjustment programmes, to ensure that social and environmental concerns are addressed, and

in this connection, conduct a review of the policies of international organizations, bodies and

agencies, including financial institutions, to ensure the continued provision of basic services

to the poor and needy;

f. Promote international cooperation to address the root causes of poverty. The development

process will not gather momentum if developing countries are weighted down by external

indebtedness, if development finance is inadequate, if barriers restrict access to markets and if

commodity prices and the terms of trade in developing countries remain depressed.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

3.11. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of

implementing the activities of this programme to be about $30 billion, including about $15 billion

from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-ofmagnitude

estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. This estimate overlaps

estimates in other parts of Agenda 21. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are nonconcessional,

will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide

upon for implementation.

(b) Capacity-building

3.12. National capacity-building for implementation of the above activities is crucial and should be

given high priority. It is particularly important to focus capacity-building at the local community level

in order to support a community-driven approach to sustainability and to establish and strengthen

mechanisms to allow sharing of experience and knowledge between community groups at national and

international levels. Requirements for such activities are considerable and are related to the various

4.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:

a. Focusing on unsustainable patterns of production and consumption;

b. Developing national policies and strategies to encourage changes in unsustainable

consumption patterns.

4.2. Since the issue of changing consumption patterns is very broad, it is addressed in several parts of

Agenda 21, notably those dealing with energy, transportation and wastes, and in the chapters on

economic instruments and the transfer of technology. The present chapter should also be read in

conjunction with chapter 5 (Demographic dynamics and sustainability).

Basis for action

4.3. Poverty and environmental degradation are closely interrelated. While poverty results in certain kinds

of environmental stress, the major cause of the continued deterioration of the global environment is the

unsustainable pattern of consumption and production, particularly in industrialized countries, which is

a matter of grave concern, aggravating poverty and imbalances.

4.4. Measures to be undertaken at the international level for the protection and enhancement of the

environment must take fully into account the current imbalances in the global patterns of consumption

and production.

4.5. Special attention should be paid to the demand for natural resources generated by unsustainable

consumption and to the efficient use of those resources consistent with the goal of minimizing

depletion and reducing pollution. Although consumption patterns are very high in certain parts of the

world, the basic consumer needs of a large section of humanity are not being met. This results in

excessive demands and unsustainable lifestyles among the richer segments, which place immense

stress on the environment. The poorer segments, meanwhile, are unable to meet food, health care,

shelter and educational needs. Changing consumption patterns will require a multipronged strategy

focusing on demand, meeting the basic needs of the poor, and reducing wastage and the use of finite

resources in the production process.

4.6. Growing recognition of the importance of addressing consumption has also not yet been matched by

an understanding of its implications. Some economists are questioning traditional concepts of

economic growth and underlining the importance of pursuing economic objectives that take account of

the full value of natural resource capital. More needs to be known about the role of consumption in

relation to economic growth and population dynamics in order to formulate coherent international and

national policies.

Objectives

4.7. Action is needed to meet the following broad objectives:

a. To promote patterns of consumption and production that reduce environmental stress and will

meet the basic needs of humanity;

b. To develop a better understanding of the role of consumption and how to bring about more

sustainable consumption patterns.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Adopting an international approach to achieving sustainable consumption patterns

4.8. In principle, countries should be guided by the following basic objectives in their efforts to address

consumption and lifestyles in the context of environment and development:

a. All countries should strive to promote sustainable consumption patterns;

b. Developed countries should take the lead in achieving sustainable consumption patterns;

c. Developing countries should seek to achieve sustainable consumption patterns in their

development process, guaranteeing the provision of basic needs for the poor, while

avoiding those unsustainable patterns, particularly in industrialized countries, generally

recognized as unduly hazardous to the environment, inefficient and wasteful, in their

development processes. This requires enhanced technological and other assistance from

industrialized countries.

4.9. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21 the review of progress made in achieving

sustainable consumption patterns should be given high priority.

(b) Data and information

Undertaking research on consumption

4.10. In order to support this broad strategy, Governments, and/or private research and policy institutes,

with the assistance of regional and international economic and environmental organizations, should

make a concerted effort to:

a. Expand or promote databases on production and consumption and develop methodologies

for analysing them;

b. Assess the relationship between production and consumption, environment, technological

adaptation and innovation, economic growth and development, and demographic factors;

c. Examine the impact of ongoing changes in the structure of modern industrial economies

away from material-intensive economic growth;

d. Consider how economies can grow and prosper while reducing the use of energy and

materials and the production of harmful materials;

e. Identify balanced patterns of consumption worldwide which the Earth can support in the

long term.

Developing new concepts of sustainable economic growth and prosperity

4.11. Consideration should also be given to the present concepts of economic growth and the need for

new concepts of wealth and prosperity which allow higher standards of living through changed

lifestyles and are less dependent on the Earth's finite resources and more in harmony with the Earth's

carrying capacity. This should be reflected in the evolution of new systems of national accounts and

other indicators of sustainable development.

(c) International cooperation and coordination

4.12. While international review processes exist for examining economic, development and

demographic factors, more attention needs to be paid to issues related to consumption and production

patterns and sustainable lifestyles and environment.

4.13. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21, reviewing the role and impact of

unsustainable production and consumption patterns and lifestyles and their relation to sustainable

development should be given high priority.

Financing and cost evaluation

4.14. The Conference secretariat has estimated that implementation of this programme is not likely to

require significant new financial resources.

Basis for action

4.15. Achieving the goals of environmental quality and sustainable development will require efficiency

in production and changes in consumption patterns in order to emphasize optimization of resource use

and minimization of waste. In many instances, this will require reorientation of existing production

and consumption patterns that have developed in industrial societies and are in turn emulated in much

of the world.

4.16. Progress can be made by strengthening positive trends and directions that are emerging, as part of

a process aimed at achieving significant changes in the consumption patterns of industries,

Governments, households and individuals.

Objectives

4.17. In the years ahead, Governments, working with appropriate organizations, should strive to meet

the following broad objectives:

a. To promote efficiency in production processes and reduce wasteful consumption in the

process of economic growth, taking into account the development needs of developing

countries;

b. To develop a domestic policy framework that will encourage a shift to more sustainable

patterns of production and consumption;

c. To reinforce both values that encourage sustainable production and consumption patterns

and policies that encourage the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to

developing countries.

Activities

(a) Encouraging greater efficiency in the use of energy and resources

4.18. Reducing the amount of energy and materials used per unit in the production of goods and

services can contribute both to the alleviation of environmental stress and to greater economic and

industrial productivity and competitiveness. Governments, in cooperation with industry, should

therefore intensify efforts to use energy and resources in an economically efficient and

environmentally sound manner by:

a. Encouraging the dissemination of existing environmentally sound technologies;

b. Promoting research and development in environmentally sound technologies;

c. Assisting developing countries to use these technologies efficiently and to develop

technologies suited to their particular circumstances;

d. Encouraging the environmentally sound use of new and renewable sources of

energy;

e. Encouraging the environmentally sound and sustainable use of renewable natural

resources.

(b) Minimizing the generation of wastes

4.19. At the same time, society needs to develop effective ways of dealing with the problem of

disposing of mounting levels of waste products and materials. Governments, together with industry,

households and the public, should make a concerted effort to reduce the generation of wastes and

waste products by:

a. Encouraging recycling in industrial processes and at the consumed level;

b. Reducing wasteful packaging of products;

c. Encouraging the introduction of more environmentally sound products.

(c) Assisting individuals and households to make environmentally sound purchasing decisions

4.20. The recent emergence in many countries of a more environmentally conscious consumer public,

combined with increased interest on the part of some industries in providing environmentally sound

consumer products, is a significant development that should be encouraged. Governments and

international organizations, together with the private sector, should develop criteria and methodologies

for the assessment of environmental impacts and resource requirements throughout the full life cycle

of products and processes. Results of those assessments should be transformed into clear indicators in

order to inform consumers and decision makers.

4.21. Governments, in cooperation with industry and other relevant groups, should encourage expansion

of environmental labelling and other environmentally related product information programmes

designed to assist consumers to make informed choices.

4.22. They should also encourage the emergence of an informed consumer public and assist individuals

and households to make environmentally informed choices by:

a. Providing information on the consequences of consumption choices and behaviour

so as to encourage demand for environmentally sound products and use of products;

b. Making consumers aware of the health and environmental impact of products,

through such means as consumer legislation and environmental labelling;

c. Encouraging specific consumer-oriented programmes, such as recycling and

deposit/refund systems.

(d) Exercising leadership through government purchasing

4.23. Governments themselves also play a role in consumption, particularly in countries where the

public sector plays a large role in the economy and can have a considerable influence on both

corporate decisions and public perceptions. They should therefore review the purchasing policies of

their agencies and departments so that they may improve, where possible, the environmental content

of government procurement policies, without prejudice to international trade principles.

(e) Moving towards environmentally sound pricing

4.24. Without the stimulus of prices and market signals that make clear to producers and consumers the

environmental costs of the consumption of energy, materials and natural resources and the generation

of wastes, significant changes in consumption and production patterns seem unlikely to occur in the

near future.

4.25. Some progress has begun in the use of appropriate economic instruments to influence consumer

behaviour. These instruments include environmental charges and taxes, deposit/refund systems, etc.

This process should be encouraged in the light of country-specific conditions.

(f) Reinforcing values that support sustainable consumption

4.26. Governments and private-sector organizations should promote more positive attitudes towards

sustainable consumption through education, public awareness programmes and other means, such as

positive advertising of products and services that utilize environmentally sound technologies or

encourage sustainable production and consumption patterns. In the review of the implementation of

Agenda 21, an assessment of the progress achieved in developing these national policies and strategies

should be given due consideration.

Means of implementation

4.27. This programme is concerned primarily with changes in unsustainable patterns of consumption

and production and values that encourage sustainable consumption patterns and lifestyles. It requires

the combined efforts of Governments, consumers and producers. Particular attention should be paid to

the significant role played by women and households as consumers and the potential impacts of their

5.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:

a. Developing and disseminating knowledge concerning the links between demographic trends and

factors and sustainable development;

b. Formulating integrated national policies for environment and development, taking into account

demographic trends and factors;

c. Implementing integrated, environment and development programmes at the local level, taking into

account demographic trends and factors.

Basis for action

5.2. Demographic trends and factors and sustainable development have a synergistic relationship.

5.3. The growth of world population and production combined with unsustainable consumption patterns

places increasingly severe stress on the life-supporting capacities of our planet. These interactive

processes affect the use of land, water, air, energy and other resources. Rapidly growing cities, unless

well-managed, face major environmental problems. The increase in both the number and size of cities

calls for greater attention to issues of local government and municipal management. The human

dimensions are key elements to consider in this intricate set of relationships and they should be

adequately taken into consideration in comprehensive policies for sustainable development. Such

policies should address the linkages of demographic trends and factors, resource use, appropriate

technology dissemination, and development. Population policy should also recognize the role played

by human beings in environmental and development concerns. There is a need to increase awareness

of this issue among decision makers at all levels and to provide both better information on which to

base national and international policies and a framework against which to interpret this information.

5.4. There is a need to develop strategies to mitigate both the adverse impact on the environment of human

activities and the adverse impact of environmental change on human populations. The world's

population is expected to exceed 8 billion by the year 2020. Sixty per cent of the world's population

already live in coastal areas, while 65 per cent of cities with populations above 2.5 million are located

along the world coasts; several of them are already at or below the present sea level.

Objectives

5.5. The following objectives should be achieved as soon as practicable:

a. To incorporate demographic trends and factors in the global analysis of environment and

development issues;

b. To develop a better understanding of the relationships among demographic dynamics,

technology, cultural behaviour, natural resources and life support systems;

c. To assess human vulnerability in ecologically sensitive areas and centres of population to

determine the priorities for action at all levels, taking full account of community defined

needs.

Activities

Research on the interaction between demographic trends and factors and sustainable development

5.6. Relevant international, regional and national institutions should consider undertaking the following

activities:

a. Identifying the interactions between demographic processes, natural resources and life support

systems, bearing in mind regional and subregional variations deriving from, inter alia,

different levels of development;

b. Integrating demographic trends and factors into the ongoing study of environmental change,

using the expertise of international, regional and national research networks and of local

communities, first, to study the human dimensions of environmental change and, second, to

identify vulnerable areas;

c. Identifying priority areas for action and developing strategies and programmes to mitigate the

adverse impact of environmental change on human populations, and vice versa.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

5.7. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing

the activities of this programme to be about $10 million from the international community on grant or

concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been

reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,

will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for

implementation.

(b) Strengthening research programmes that integrate population, environment and development

5.8. In order to integrate demographic analysis into a broader social science perspective on environment

and development, interdisciplinary research should be increased. International institutions and

networks of experts should enhance their scientific capacity, taking full account of community

experience and knowledge, and should disseminate the experience gained in multidisciplinary

approaches and in linking theory to action.

5.9. Better modelling capabilities should be developed, identifying the range of possible outcomes of

current human activities, especially the interrelated impact of demographic trends and factors, per

capita resource use and wealth distribution, as well as the major migration flows that may be expected

with increasing climatic events and cumulative environmental change that may destroy people's local

livelihoods.

(c) Developing information and public awareness

5.10. Socio-demographic information should be developed in a suitable format for interfacing with

physical, biological and socio-economic data. Compatible spatial and temporal scales, cross-country

and time-series information, as well as global behavioural indicators should be developed, learning

from local communities' perceptions and attitudes.

5.11. Awareness should be increased at all levels concerning the need to optimize the sustainable use of

resources through efficient resource management, taking into account the development needs of the

populations of developing countries.

5.12. Awareness should be increased of the fundamental linkages between improving the status of

women and demographic dynamics, particularly through women's access to education, primary and

reproductive health care programmes, economic independence and their effective, equitable

participation in all levels of decision-making.

5.13. Results of research concerned with sustainable development issues should be disseminated

through technical reports, scientific journals, the media, workshops, forums or other means so that the

information can be used by decision makers at all levels and increase public awareness.

(d) Developing and/or enhancing institutional capacity and collaboration

5.14. Collaboration and exchange of information should be increased between research institutions and

international, regional and national agencies and all other sectors (including the private sector, local

communities, non-governmental organizations and scientific institutions) from both the industrialized

and developing countries, as appropriate.

5.15. Efforts should be intensified to enhance the capacities of national and local governments, the

private sector and non-governmental organizations in developing countries to meet the growing needs

for improved management of rapidly growing urban areas.

Basis for action

5.16. Existing plans for sustainable development have generally recognized demographic trends and

factors as elements that have a critical influence on consumption patterns, production, lifestyles and

long-term sustainability. But in future, more attention will have to be given to these issues in general

policy formulation and the design of development plans. To do this, all countries will have to improve

their own capacities to assess the environment and development implications of their demographic

trends and factors. They will also need to formulate and implement policies and action programmes

where appropriate. Policies should be designed to address the consequences of population growth built

into population momentum, while at the same time incorporating measures to bring about

demographic transition. They should combine environmental concerns and population issues within a

holistic view of development whose primary goals include the alleviation of poverty; secure

livelihoods; good health; quality of life; improvement of the status and income of women and their

access to schooling and professional training, as well as fulfilment of their personal aspirations; and

empowerment of individuals and communities. Recognizing that large increases in the size and

number of cities will occur in developing countries under any likely population scenario, greater

attention should be given to preparing for the needs, in particular of women and children, for improved

municipal management and local government.

Objective

5.17. Full integration of population concerns into national planning, policy and decision-making

processes should continue. Population policies and programmes should be considered, with full

recognition of women's rights.

Activities

5.18. Governments and other relevant actors could, inter alia, undertake the following activities, with

appropriate assistance from aid agencies, and report on their status of implementation to the

International Conference on Population and Development to be held in 1994, especially to its

committee on population and environment.

(a) Assessing the implications of national demographic trends and factors

5.19. The relationships between demographic trends and factors and environmental change and between

environmental degradation and the components of demographic change should be analysed.

5.20. Research should be conducted on how environmental factors interact with socio-economic factors

as a cause of migration.

5.21. Vulnerable population groups (such as rural landless workers, ethnic minorities, refugees,

migrants, displaced people, women heads of household) whose changes in demographic structure may

have specific impacts on sustainable development should be identified.

5.22. An assessment should be made of the implications of the age structure of the population on

resource demand and dependency burdens, ranging from educational expenses for the young to health

care and support for the elderly, and on household income generation.

5.23. An assessment should also be made of national population carrying capacity in the context of

satisfaction of human needs and sustainable development, and special attention should be given to

critical resources, such as water and land, and environmental factors, such as ecosystem health and

biodiversity.

5.24. The impact of national demographic trends and factors on the traditional livelihoods of indigenous

groups and local communities, including changes in traditional land use because of internal population

pressures, should be studied.

(b) Building and strengthening a national information base

5.25. National databases on demographic trends and factors and environment should be built and/or

strengthened, disaggregating data by ecological region (ecosystem approach), and

population/environment profiles should be established by region.

5.26. Methodologies and instruments should be developed to identify areas where sustainability is, or

may be, threatened by the environmental effects of demographic trends and factors, incorporating both

current and projected demographic data linked to natural environmental processes.

5.27. Case-studies of local level responses by different groups to demographic dynamics should be

developed, particularly in areas subject to environmental stress and in deteriorating urban centres.

5.28. Population data should be disaggregated by, inter alia, sex and age in order to take into account the

implications of the gender division of labour for the use and management of natural resources.

(c) Incorporating demographic features into policies and plans

5.29. In formulating human settlements policies, account should be taken of resource needs, waste

production and ecosystem health.

5.30. 5.30. The direct and induced effects of demographic changes on environment and development

programmes should, where appropriate, be integrated, and the impact on demographic features

assessed.

5.31. 5.31. National population policy goals and programmes that are consistent with national

environment and development plans for sustainability and in keeping with the freedom, dignity and

personally held values of individuals should be established and implemented.

5.32. 5.32. Appropriate socio-economic policies for the young and the elderly, both in terms of family

and state support systems, should be developed.

5.33. 5.33. Policies and programmes should be developed for handling the various types of migrations

that result from or induce environmental disruptions, with special attention to women and vulnerable

groups.

5.34. 5.34. Demographic concerns, including concerns for environmental migrants and displaced

people, should be incorporated in the programmes for sustainable development of relevant

international and regional institutions.

5.35. 5.35. National reviews should be conducted and the integration of population policies in national

development and environment strategies should be monitored nationally.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

5.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of

implementing the activities of this programme to be about $90 million from the international

community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates

only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that

are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes

Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Raising awareness of demographic and sustainable develop ment interactions

5.37. Understanding of the interactions between demographic trends and factors and sustainable

development should be increased in all sectors of society. Stress should be placed on local and national

action. Demographic and sustainable development education should be coordinated and integrated in

both the formal and non-formal education sectors. Particular attention should be given to population

literacy programmes, notably for women. Special emphasis should be placed on the linkage between

these programmes, primary environmental care and the provision of primary health care and services.

(c) Strengthening institutions

5.38. The capacity of national, regional and local structures to deal with issues relating to demographic

trends and factors and sustainable development should be enhanced. This would involve strengthening

the relevant bodies responsible for population issues to enable them to elaborate policies consistent

with the national prospects for sustainable development. Cooperation among government, national

research institutions, non-governmental organizations and local communities in assessing problems

and evaluating policies should also be enhanced.

5.39. The capacity of the relevant United Nations organs, organizations and bodies, international and

regional intergovernmental bodies, non-governmental organizations and local communities should, as

appropriate, be enhanced to help countries develop sustainable development policies on request and, as

appropriate, provide assistance to environmental migrants and displaced people.

5.40. Inter-agency support for national sustainable development policies and programmes should be

improved through better coordination of population and environment activities.

(d) Promoting human resource development

5.41. The international and regional scientific institutions should assist Governments, upon request, to

include concerns regarding the population/environment interactions at the global, ecosystem and

micro-levels in the training of demographers and population and environment specialists. Training

should include research on linkages and ways to design integrated strategies.

Basis for action

5.42. Population programmes are more effective when implemented together with appropriate crosssectoral

policies. To attain sustainability at the local level, a new framework is needed that integrates

demographic trends and factors with such factors as ecosystem health, technology and human

settlements, and with socio-economic structures and access to resources. Population programmes

should be consistent with socio-economic and environmental planning. Integrated sustainable

development programmes should closely correlate action on demographic trends and factors with

resource management activities and development goals that meet the needs of the people concerned.

Objective

5.43. Population programmes should be implemented along with natural resource management and

development programmes at the local level that will ensure sustainable use of natural resources,

improve the quality of life of the people and enhance environmental quality.

Activities

5.44. Governments and local communities, including community-based women's organizations and

national non-governmental organizations, consistent with national plans, objectives, strategies and

priorities, could, inter alia, undertake the activities set out below with the assistance and cooperation of

international organizations, as appropriate. Governments could share their experience in the

implementation of Agenda 21 at the International Conference on Population and Development, to be

held in 1994, especially its committee on population and environment.

(a) Developing a framework for action

5.45. An effective consultative process should be established and implemented with concerned groups

of society where the formulation and decision-making of all components of the programmes are based

on a nationwide consultative process drawing on community meetings, regional workshops and

national seminars, as appropriate. This process should ensure that views of women and men on needs,

perspective and constraints are equally well reflected in the design of programmes, and that solutions

are rooted in specific experience. The poor and underprivileged should be priority groups in this

process.

5.46. Nationally determined policies for integrated and multifaceted programmes, with special attention

to women, to the poorest people living in critical areas and to other vulnerable groups should be

implemented, ensuring the involvement of groups with a special potential to act as agents for change

and sustainable development. Special emphasis should be placed on those programmes that achieve

multiple objectives, encouraging sustainable economic development, and mitigating adverse impacts

of demographic trends and factors, and avoiding long-term environmental damage. Food security,

access to secure tenure, basic shelter, and essential infrastructure, education, family welfare, women's

reproductive health, family credit schemes, reforestation programmes, primary environmental care,

women's employment should, as appropriate, be included among other factors.

5.47. An analytical framework should be develop ed to identify complementary elements of sustainable

development policies as well as the national mechanisms to monitor and evaluate their effects on

population dynamics.

5.48. Special attention should be given to the critical role of women in population/environment

programmes and in achieving sustainable development. Projects should take advantage of

opportunities to link social, economic and environmental gains for women and their families.

Empowerment of women is essential and should be assured through education, training and policies to

accord and improve women's right and access to assets, human and civil rights, labour-saving

measures, job opportunities and participation in decision-making. Population/environment

programmes must enable women to mobilize themselves to alleviate their burden and improve their

capacity to participate in and benefit from socio-economic development. Specific measures should be

undertaken to close the gap between female and male illiteracy rates.

(b) Supporting programmes that promote changes in demographic trends and factors towards sustainability

5.49. Reproductive health programmes and services, should, as appropriate, be developed and enhanced

to reduce maternal and infant mortality from all causes and enable women and men to fulfil their

personal aspirations in terms of family size, in a way in keeping with their freedom and dignity and

personally held values.

5.50. Governments should take active steps to implement, as a matter of urgency, in accordance with

country-specific conditions and legal systems, measures to ensure that women and men have the same

right to decide freely and responsibly on the number and spacing of their children, to have access to

the information, education and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercis e this right in keeping

with their freedom, dignity and personally held values taking into account ethical and cultural

considerations.

5.51. Governments should take active steps to implement programmes to establish and strengthen

preventive and curative health facilities that include women-centred, women-managed, safe and

effective reproductive health care and affordable, accessible services, as appropriate, for the

responsible planning of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and

taking into account ethical and cultural considerations. Programmes should focus on providing

comprehensive health care, including pre-natal care, education and information on health and

responsible parenthood and should provide the opportunity for all women to breast-feed fully, at least

during the first four months post-partum. Programmes should fully support women's productive and

reproductive roles and well being, with special attention to the need for providing equal and improved

health care for all children and the need to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortality and sickness.

5.52. Consistent with national priorities, culturally based information and education programmes that

transmit reproductive health messages to men and women that are easily understood should be

developed.

(c) Creating appropriate institutional conditions

5.53. Constituencies and institutional conditions to facilitate the implementation of demographic

activities should, as appropriate, be fostered. This requires support and commitment from political,

indigenous, religious and traditional authorities, the private sector and the national scientific

community. In developing these appropriate institutional conditions, countries should closely involve

established national machinery for women.

5.54. Population assistance should be coordinated with bilateral and multilateral donors to ensure that

population needs and requirements of all developing countries are addressed, fully respecting the

overall coordinating responsibility and the choice and strategies of the recipient countries.

5.55. Coordination should be improved at local and international levels. Working practices should be

enhanced in order to make optimum use of resources, draw on collective experience and improve the

implementation of programmes. UNFPA and other relevant agencies should strengthen the

coordination of international cooperation activities with recipient and donor countries in order to

ensure that adequate funding is available to respond to growing needs.

5.56. Proposals should be developed for local, national and international population/environment

programmes in line with specific needs for achieving sustainability. Where appropriate, institutional

changes must be implemented so that old-age security does not entirely depend on input from family

members.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

5.57. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of

implementing the activities of this programme to be about $7 billion, including about $3.5 billion from

the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-ofmagnitude

estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial

terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and

programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Research

5.58. Research should be undertaken with a view to developing specific action programmes; it will be

necessary to establish priorities between proposed areas of research.

5.59. Socio-demographic research should be conducted on how populations respond to a changing

environment.

5.60. Understanding of socio-cultural and political factors that can positively influence acceptance of

appropriate population policy instruments should be improved.

5.61. Surveys of changes in needs for appropriate services relating to responsible planning of family

size, reflecting variations among different socio-economic groups and variations in different

geographical regions should be undertaken.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

5.62. The areas of human resource development and capacity-building, with particular attention to the

education and training of women, are areas of critical importance and are a very high priority in the

implementation of population programmes.

5.63. Workshops to help programme and projects managers to link population programmes to other

development and environmental goals should be conducted.

5.64. Educational materials, including guides/workbooks for planners and decision makers and other

actors of population/environment/development programmes, should be developed.

5.65. Cooperation should be developed between Governments, scientific institutions and nongovernmental

organizations within the region, and similar institutions outside the region. Cooperation

with local organizations should be fostered in ordered to raise awareness, engage in demonstration

projects and report on the experience gained.

5.66. The recommendations contained in this chapter should in no way prejudice discussions at the

International Conference on Population and Development in 1994, which will be the appropriate

forum for dealing with population and development issues, taking into account the recommendations

of the International Conference on Population, held in Mexico City in 1984, 1/ and the Forwardlooking

Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 2/ adopted by the World Conference to Review

and Appraise the Achievements of the United Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace,

held in Nairobi in 1985.

Notes

1/ Report of the International Conference on Population, Mexico City, 6-14 August 1984 (United Nations

publication, Sales No. E.84.XIII.8), chap. I.

2/ Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations

Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, Nairobi, 15-26 July 1985 (United Nations

6.1. Health and development are intimately interconnected. Both insufficient development leading to

poverty and inappropriate development resulting in overconsumption, coupled with an expanding

world population, can result in severe environmental health p roblems in both developing and

developed nations. Action items under Agenda 21 must address the primary health needs of the

world's population, since they are integral to the achievement of the goals of sustainable development

and primary environmental care. The linkage of health, environmental and socio-economic

improvements requires intersectoral efforts. Such efforts, involving education, housing, public works

and community groups, including businesses, schools and universities and religious, civic and cultural

organizations, are aimed at enabling people in their communities to ensure sustainable development.

Particularly relevant is the inclusion of prevention programmes rather than relying solely on

remediation and treatment. Countries ought to develop plans for priority actions, drawing on the

programme areas in this chapter, which are based on cooperative planning by the various levels of

government, non-governmental organizations and local communities. An appropriate international

organization, such as WHO, should coordinate these activities.

6.2. The following programme areas are contained in this chapter:

a. Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas;

b. Control of communicable diseases;

c. Protecting vulnerable groups;

d. Meeting the urban health challenge;

e. Reducing health risks from environmental pollution and hazards.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas Basis for action

6.3. Health ultimately depends on the ability to manage successfully the interaction between the physical,

spiritual, biological and economic/social environment. Sound development is not possible without a

healthy population; yet most developmental activities affect the environment to some degree, which in

turn causes or exacerbates many health problems. Conversely, it is the very lack of development that

adversely affects the health condition of many people, which can be alleviated only through

development. The health sector cannot meet basic needs and objectives on its own; it is dependent on

social, economic and spiritual development, while directly contributing to such development. It is also

dependent on a healthy environment, including the provision of a safe water supply and sanitation and

the promotion of a safe food supply and proper nutrition. Particular attention should be directed

towards food safety, with priority placed on the elimination of food contamination; comprehensive and

sustainable water policies to ensure safe drinking water and sanitation to preclude both microbial and

chemical contamination; and promotion of health education, immunization and provision of essential

drugs. Education and appropriate services regarding responsible planning of family size, with respect

for cultural, religious and social aspects, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values

and taking into account ethical and cultural considerations, also contribute to these intersectoral

activities.

Objectives

6.4. Within the overall strategy to achieve health for all by the year 2000, the objectives are to meet the

basic health needs of rural peri-urban and urban populations; to provide the necessary specialized

environmental health services; and to coordinate the involvement of citizens, the health sector, the

health-related sectors and relevant non-health sectors (business, social, educational and religious

institutions) in solutions to health problems. As a matter of priority, health service coverage should be

achieved for population groups in greatest need, particularly those living in rural areas.

Activities

6.5. National Governments and local authorities, with the support of relevant non-governmental

organizations and international organizations, in the light of countries' specific conditions and needs,

should strengthen their health sector programmes, with special attention to rural needs, to:

(a) Build basic health infrastructures, monitoring and planning systems:

i. Develop and strengthen primary health care systems that are practical,